APA Manual   Use the following index to introduce you to the various parts of the American Psychological Association Publication Manual (5th ed.) as summarized by Dr. Parcells for use in his undergraduate and graduate classes at Austin Peay State University.   Dr. Parcells warns his students of some basic problems to which many inexperienced authors of research reports or papers, theses, and other scholarly works succumb.   Avoid piecemeal papers (sometimes called "layer caking" ) where one detailed reportis really a series of series of direct quotations separated by and held together by small ammounts of original narrative. Do not overuse verbatim excerpts and direct quotations from many different sources or the same source. This could make readers and/or the evaluator skeptical of the originality of the overall work. Remember that the use of the materials (including words, photographs, graphics, music, or any other original works) of others without identifying the source ("author" in Copyright terms) is called plagiarism and often illegal. Be cautious with your use of the English language as you, the author, are responsible for your written communication. Simply click on any of the topics to obtain the appropriate information.   Structuring the Document Body of Report Supporting Materials Formatic Considerations A Word About Style Reduction of Language Bias Grammar and Syntax Heads/Subheads, Tables, and Figures Reference List Citations Sample Research Paper

	Structuring the Document All research reports, reaction papers, theses and other documents required in Dr. Parcells' classes or requirements for graduation using the APA Publication Manual (5th ed.) are to be written using the following required components.   Paper - Use 8 1/2 by 11 inch white typing paper. Typeface - Use 12 pt. type with Times New Roman font. Double-Spacing - "Double-spacing means leaving one full-size line blank between each line of type on a page" (APA, 2001, 287). Margins - Use 1 inch margins at the top, bottom, left and right of every page. Line Length and Alignment - The length of each line should be 6 1/2 inches or a pica typewriter setting of 65 characters and an elite typewriter setting of 78 characters. Number of Lines - A maximum of 27 lines of text should appear on any given page. Order of Paper Pages - The order for the research paper or thesis pages is title page, abstract (if required), text, references, appendixes, tables, and figures. Page Numbers and Manuscript Page Headers - Pages are numbered consecutively, beginning with the title page. The numbers are indented 1 inch from the right margin and 1/2 inch down from the right hand top of the page. Use two or three words from the title to the left of the page number as a shortened title or page header. Paragraph Indentations - Indent the first line of every paragraph five to seven spaces or 1/2 inch. Uppercase and Lowercase Letters - This instruction means that the bulk of an APA research paper of thesis is written primarily in uppercase and lowercase letters for such things as: most elements of the title page, page labels, most headings, table titles, and some elements of the reference list.

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	Body of Report   The research paper is divided into four basic parts, and may be given titles rather than using any of these specific names for parts of the paper.   Introduction - The introduction covers the rationale and justification for the paper, the purpose of the paper, a brief review of relevant theory, and any review of literature to provide a background and history of the topic and problem. The purpose can be stated as a research question, problem statement or question, hypothesis, or purpose. The introduction section deals only with facts and not opinion. The title "Introduction" is not used in the text of this section for the research paper. Method - The method describes the design of the study and the specific data collection and evaluation procedures employed. This section can be quite simple when it is a library investigation or quite complex when it is a "full blown" empirical study. Both qualitative and quantitative methods are outlined here in some detail sufficient so that those reading the study could replicate its methodology to run their own, similar research inquiry. The method section deals only with facts. and not opinions. Results - It is here that, through the use of tables and text, the results of the study are presented. The type of results varies depending upon the method employed. The results section deals only with facts and not opinions. Discussion - The discussion section is where evaluation occurs; it is here that the researcher analyzes and interprets the data presented in the results part of the paper. Here the researcher is allowed to express opinions based on the results of the inquiry, and these opinions are presented through a summary and conclusions of the study.

	Supporting Materials   These materials follow the body of text, in the order listed below, and provide support for the text in the scholarly work or research paper.   Appendixes - Attachments such as questionnaires, lists, and extensive indexes. Appendixes are listed as seen below at the top of the inserted page. APPENDIX A   The Questionnaire   Reference List - Listing only sources cited in the text and used as intext references. This is not a bibliography which lists all materials utilized during preparation and publication of the scholarly work or research paper. The reference list is titled as follows without underlining double spaced below the shortened title and pagination. References Tables and Figures - The actual inclusion of a table or figure which is to be inserted into the scholarly work or research paper by the publisher. In the body of the report only a reference to the table or figure is listed, it is centered in the middle of the page, and looks as this: <Insert Table 1.1 approximately here.>   OR   <Insert Figure 1.1 approximately here.>

	Formatic Considerations   While the text of any research paper, reaction paper, or thesis must first be adjusted to University and Graduate College writing manuals, the following structural considerations should be used in Dr. Parcells classes or for research papers/thesis writing under his supervision. Use 1 inch margins on the top, bottom, left and right sides of the page of the 8 1/2 inch by 11 inch typing paper. Most text is double-spaced and for exceptions see APA Publication Manual (5th ed.). Place a shortened title (page header) with the page number in the upper right-hand corner of all pages of the paper, including the title page and abstract (if it is required). The short title is not the same thing as a running head on the title page; omit the running head as it is used for publication information. The title page should contain the short title with page number, title of the paper, the student's name, department, and university. Nothing else needs be present for the title page. Do not use a "running head" on the title page. An abstract should be included as the next page only for graduate students in the case of research papers or theses. The first text page of the body of the paper should contain the shortened title and page number, the title of the paper, and then double-space before beginning with the actual text of the paper. The body of the paper should be divided into the introduction (rationale, purpose, literature review) method, results, and discussion including summary and conclusion. If the paper is a graduate student thesis or research paper, the standard organization outlined by your academic advisor and the graduate college.

	A Word About Style   The term "style" has long been misunderstood, and frequently inappropriately applied, particulary within academic disciplines by students and blossoming authors. Style must be accompanied by proper form and structure, necessary research protocols, and appropriate grammar and use of the English language in order for the effective composition of scholary manuscripts. However, style is also its own element.   Kessler and McDonald (2004) in their book entltled When Words Collide, address the issue of style in terms of a writing element complementary to the proper use of grammar and syntax.   Style is the writer's unique vision--and the lively, original expression of that vision--that draws audience attention to the message. It is the relfection of the writer's individual way of seeing, thinking, and using language. It is the product of purposeful choices, the culmination of many small things done well, the result of sheer hard work. Style has an important place in all writing. (p. 147)   Style, then, has little to do with ostentatious language. Window dressing (a gaggle of adjectives, ro example), verbalornamentation (big words or purple prose), and fancy tricks do not generally contribute to compelling writing. In fact, verbal falshiness can obscure coherent thought....Crisp, clean writing: simple sentences, strong verbs, powerful images. This is style. (p. 148)   Both the APA and Dr. Parcells expect a writing style which employs language that is clear, concise, correct, and complete. The key is content and phrasing understandable by the reader. Ideas are presented in an orderly, understandable fashion with a writing style allowing for smoothness and economy of expression. There is a difference between scholarly writing and expository, business, narrative, persuasive, or prose writing. Examine some articles in scholarly journals and magazines in the communication discipline (Communication World, Journal of Applied Communication Research, Journal of Communication, Journal of Computer Mediated Communication, Journal of Critical Studies in Mass Communication, Journal of Electronic Media, PR Strategist, and others). See how these authors select words, and develop phrasing. Important stylistic writing includes an emphasis on selection of and meaningful choice for words, phrasing, sentence vareity and structure, and overall composition. Clarity of expression is also important and can be hampered by the inappropriate and needless use of jargon, wordiness, redundancy, colloquialism,s, unnecessary pronouns, and nonspecific comparisons. Appropriate and accurate attribution is always encouraged. Use abbreviations sparingly and preferably make an initial reference to the source of the abbreviation prior to the actual use of the abbreviation. For example, "The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) began its study....The FBI offers detailed coursework at Quantico in.... "

	Reduction of Language Bias   Both the APA and Dr. Parcells desire to reduce the bias that typically appears in our use of the English language. Here are some APA recommendations for achieving that end result.   Describe at an appropriate level of specificity. Simply put, this means that when you are describing persons or a person try to use words that are accurate, clear, and free of bias. Be sensitive to labels. Avoid labeling people whenever possible. Acknowledge participation. Use descriptive terms wherever possible and this includes the description of research subjects in a more human/humane manner. Gender. When references are gender specific for a male(s) or a female(s), then use the appropriate pronoun, his or her. Otherwise, when gender specificity is not possible or relevant, make references to police officer rather than policeman, etc. Sexual Orientation. The use of terms such as lesbian and gay are preferred over homosexuals when making reference to groups. The term homosexual(ity) has some very negative stereotypes associated with it. Racial and Ethnic Identity. There are two guidelines to keep inmind here: specificity and sensitivity. Awareness of current trends and preferences in this area is important for scholarly writing. Disabilities. Here the APA states that the guiding principle for avoiding "'handicapping' language is to maintain the integrity of individuals as human beings." You can use the term disability in reference to a single attribute, and handicap to explain the source of the limitations (APA, 2001, p. 69). Age. A range of ages is the best way to describe people. When a specific age is required outside of an experimental study, it is best to make reference to such categories as "teenager," "young child," "baby," "older American," etc. Again, sensitivity is the rule.

	Grammar and Syntax   The preference is for writing is in the active and not passive voice. Write in the present tense with reference to the past tense. Try to avoid the use of future tense unless essential when making predictions or suggesting future research in the discussion section of your paper. Use first (I, me) or third person (we, they) when writing; avoid second person (you). Write in active voice and avoid the use of passive voice in scholarly compositions. Use action verbs, and avoid the standard is, was, and will whenever possible. Use simple sentences for the bulk of your writing employing an occasional compound or complex sentence. Simple sentences often have greater impact than those with more complex structure. For example, "Jesus wept." Begin sentences by moving directly to the subject and avoiding lengthy unnecessary phrases which do not involve the primary importance (subject) of your sentence. Thus, avoid starting sentences with prepositional phrases wherever possible; place the prepositional phrase at the end of or within the sentence in an appropriate position. Do not end sentences with prepositions, like "The student did not know where he was going to." Do not split infinitives. For example, to slowly run. Note the adverb slowly separating the two parts of the verb (to and run) in this example. Achieve noun - pronoun agreement. Use singular pronouns (i. e., his or her) when dealing with a singular noun (i. e., individual), and a plural pronoun (i. e., them or they) as associated with a plural noun (i. e., individuals). Employ subject - verb agreement. Be certain that the subject of the sentence agrees with the tense of the verb. For example, The loud scream reverberates off the brick walls of the downtown apartment buildings; the loud screams reverberate off the brick walls of the downtown apartment buildings.

	Heads/Subheads, Tables, and Figures   Five levels of headings are used now by APA. Here are the examples: Heading or Subheading / Level   CENTERED UPPERCASE HEADING-------------------------------------------->Level 5 Centered Uppercase and Lowercase Heading-------------------------------->Level 1 Centered, Italicized, Uppercase and Lowercase Heading------------------->Level 2 Flush Left, Italicized, Uppercase and Lowercase Side Heading------------>Level 3 Indented, Italicized, Lowercase Paragraph Heading Ending with Period->Level 4     When preparing tables there is a specific format to use. Tables permit the comparison of numerical data and qualitative data as well. It is an efficient way to summarize data in a research paper, and it is outlined in the following example: Table 9.1   Important Themes from the Study ________________________________________________    Ranking/Theme  ________________________________________________ 1 Use of listening skills during presentations. 2 Use of notetaking skills during presentations. 3 Using quality individual, presentational delivery skills. 4 Developing a sensitivity for and awareness of questions. 5 Preparing superior visual aids.  ________________________________________________   Figures are an illustration other than a table. A figure can be a chart, graph, photograph, drawing, or other depiction. There are a number of types of figures such as scatter plots, line graphs, bar graphs, pictorial graphs, circle/pie graphs, dot or shaded maps, drawings, photographs, and diagrams.   Figure 9.1 Internet Users by Year

	Reference List Citations   The following are examples of how to cite references in the reference list for resources and sources using the APA Publication Manual (5th ed.). Resources cited here do not necessarilly represent real publications. Wherever possible use @ rather than write out "at" when preparing the reference list. Omit unessential parts of a publisher's name with the intent of simplifying the name. For example, list McGraw-Hill rather than McGraw-Hill Publishers.    PERIODICALS (Journal Article with One Author): Parcells, F. (1990). Evaluating radio station operations & staff relations. Feedback, 31(3), 11, 26-27. PERIODICALS (Journal Article with Multiple Authors): Parcells, F., Hamilton, M., & Bradd, M. (1992). Performance-based broadcast education. Feedback, 33(4), 15-17. PERIODICALS (Journal Article In Press): Parcells, F. (2004). Ethical standards in public relations. PR Strategist. PERIODICALS (Single Author, Magazine Article): Parcells, F. (2001, Nov 12). PR professionalism & ethics. PR Today, 312, 22-23. PERIODICALS (Single Author, Newsletter Article): Parcells, F. (1984, Winter). Oral communication for Illinois teachers. Teacher Talk, 2(4), 1-2. PERIODICALS (Single Author, Newspaper Article): Parcells, F. (1980, June 10). The media are numb. Mt. Carmel Daily Register-Republican, A3.    BOOKS (One Author): Parcells, F. (2004). Using the Internet. Mahomet, IL: Mayhaven Publishing. BOOKS (Multiple Authors): Borzi, M., & Parcells, F. (2004). Computer mediated communication. Mahomet, IL: Mayhaven Publishing. BOOKS (Second Edition): Borzi, M., & Parcells, F. (2005). Computer mediated communication (2nd ed.). Mahomet, IL: Mayhaven Publishing. BOOKS (Encyclopedia or Dictionary): Sadie, S. (Ed.). (2001). The new grove dictionary (9th ed.). London: Macmillan.   OTHER (Brochure with Organizational Author): APSU Dept. of Communication & Theatre. (2002). Student accounts. Clarksville, TN: Austin Peay State University. OTHER (Research Report): Parcells, F., & Cardona, I. (1983). Ongoing education: an evaluative-goal theory. Carbondale, IL: Dept. of Speech Communication, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale. OTHER (Published Doctoral Dissertations): Parcells, F. (1983). Broadcast higher education: what managers want educators to teach. (Doctoral Dissertation, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale, 1983) Dissertation Abstracts International, 36, 417. OTHER (Unpublished Master's Thesis): Parcells, F. (1979). Mass communication curricula in Illinois junior & community colleges. Unpublished Master's Thesis, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale.    PAPERS @ PROFESSIONAL MEETINGS (Conferences or Conventions): Parcells, F. (1998, Dec). Intercultural communication across the Internet. A paper presented at Speech Communication Association of Puerto Rico Annual Conference in San Juan, PR.   ELECTRONIC MEDIA (Motion Picture or Videotape): Scorsese, M. (Producer), & Lonegran, K. (Writer/Director). (2000). You can count on me [Motion Picture or Video]. United States: Paramount Pictures. ELECTRONIC MEDIA (Television Broadcast): Crystal, L. (Executive Producer). (1993, Oct 11). The Macneil Lehrer news hour. [Television Broadcast]. New York & Washington, D. C.: PBS. ELECTRONIC MEDIA (World Wide Web Site with Author Known): Parcells, F. (2004). Dr. Frank E. Parcells APSU Student Web Site. Retrieved July 25, 2004 from http://www.FrankEParcells.info/. ELECTRONIC MEDIA (World Wide Web Site with Author and Date Unknown): Department of Communication and Theatre @ Austin Peay State University. Retrieved July 25, 2004 from http://www.apsu.edu/comm_thea/.

	Sample Research Paper